43           Beginning of Roman rule in Britain C.100-c.4OO African auxiliary unit in the Roman army, the Numerus Maurorum Aurelianorum, stationed on Hadrian's Wall during part of this period 138         Quintus Lollius Urbicus, an African, governor of the Roman province of Britannia (Great Britain) 211         Septimius Severus, African-born Roman emperor, dies at York 409         End of Roman rule in Britain Late 14th century "Mandeville's Travels" popularizes the legend of Prester John in Europe 1501       Catherine of Aragon brings African attendants (including the trumpeter John Blanke) when she travels to England to marry Prince Arthur 1508       William Dunbar's poem 'Ane Blak More' records black presence at the court of the Scottish king James IV 1547       Pedro Negro knighted, perhaps the first African to receive an English knighthood 1562       First slaving voyage by John Hawkins marks beginning of British involvement in the transatlantic slave trade 1594       Shakespeare writes "Titus Andronicus" 1596       Queen Elizabeth I orders expulsion of Africans from England -          Sir Walter Raleigh publishes "Discovery of the Large, Rich and Beautiful Empire of Guiana" 1601       Queen Elizabeth I again orders expulsion of Africans from England 1604       First recorded performance of Shakespeare's Othello  1611      First recorded performance of Shakespeare's The Tempest 1623       English settlement in St Kitts, the earliest British colony in the Caribbean 1627       Coree the Saldanian killed in South Africa after his return from Britain 1636       Edward Colston born 1655       English expedition captures Jamaica from the Spanish 1657       Richard Ligon publishes "True & Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes" 1688       Aphra Behn's novel "Oroonoko" published 1690       John Montagu (later second Duke of Montagu) born 1695       Thomas Southerne adapts Aphra Behn's novel "Oroonoko" for the stage 1702       Scipio Africanus born 1703       John Wesley born 1707       Act of Union between England and Scotland, allowing Scots equal rights in previously English colonies; trade with North American and Caribbean colonies contributes significantly to development of Glasgow 1711       Richard Steele publishes story of Inkle and Yarico in "The Spectator" 1713       Treaty of Utrecht gives South Sea Company right to supply slaves to Spanish American colonies 1714       Accession of King George I 1719       Daniel Defoe publishes "Robinson Crusoe" 1720       Scipio Africanus dies -          South Sea Bubble 1721       Edward Colston dies -           Francis Williams admitted to Lincoln's Inn 1725       John Newton born 1726       Charles Middleton (later first Baron Barham) born 1729       Ignatius Sancho born on a slave ship -          Yorke-Talbot opinion supports the legality of slavery in Britain 1730       Josiah Wedgwood born 1731       Beilby Porteus born 1733       James Ramsay born 1735       Granville Sharp born C.1736  Sambo dies and is buried at Sunderland Point, Lancaster 1741       Philip Quaque born at Cape Coast, West Africa 1745?     Olaudah Equiano born, according to his own account, somewhere in what is now south-eastern Nigeria 1748       William Ansah Sessarakoo, 'the Royal African', brought to Britain 1749       John Montagu (second Duke of Montagu) dies 1752?     Francis Barber enters the service of Samuel Johnson 1753       William Roscoe born 1754       Olaudah Equiano's first arrival in Britain -          Philip Quaque sent to Britain -          Julius Soubise born on St Kitts 1755       John Marrant born in New York -          Cesar Picton (original name unknown) born in West Africa 1756       Edward Rushton born 1759       William Wilberforce born -           John Hawkesworth writes new stage version of Aphra Behn's novel "Oroonoko" -           Francis Williams writes Latin ode addressed to the Governor of Jamaica -           Paul Cuffee born 1760       Briton Hammon publishes "Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton Hammon, a Negro Man" -           'Tacky's Revolt' (slave rebellion in Jamaica) 1761       Cesar Picton baptized in England 1762       Francis Williams dies in Jamaica 1763       Bill Richmond born in New York 1764       John Gladstone born 1765       Isaac Teale's poem "The Sable Venus" first published -           Philip Quaque becomes the first African priest of the Church of England (returns to Cape Coast the following year) 1766       John Hylas sues for return of his wife, Mary, sold back into slavery (wins his case in 1768) 1767       Legal case involving Jonathan Strong 1768       Zachary Macaulay born -           Isaac Bickerstaff's "The Padlock" first performed; the play's character Mungo appearance of a black-face comic character on the English stage appearance of a black-face comic character on the English stage -          Thomas Gainsborough paints portrait of Ignatius Sancho 1769       Granville Sharp publishes "A Representation of the Injustice and Dangerous Tendency of Tolerating Slavery" 1772       Lord Mansfield delivers judgment in the case of James Somerset 1773       Jonathan Strong dies -          Case of Knight v. Wedderburn comes before the Scottish courts (finally decided 1778) -          Phillis Wheatley, African-American poet, visits Britain -          Phillis Wheatley's "Poems on Various Subjects" published in London; first book by a black woman to be published in Britain. -          Thomas Day and John Bicknell publish poem "The Dying Negro" 1774       John Wesley publishes "Thoughts Upon Slavery" -           Edward Long publishes "The History of Jamaica" 1775       West India Committee founded 1779       Painting of Dido Elizabeth Lindsay and her cousin Lady Elizabeth Murray, attributed to Johann Zoffany 1780       Ignatius Sancho dies -          William Wilberforce first elected to Parliament; continues as MP until 1825 1781       One hundred and thirty-two slaves thrown overboard from the ship Zong and drowned 1782       David Cunningham, one of the earliest known black Glaswegians, baptized 1782       "The Letters of the Late Ignatius Sancho, an African" 1783       Court case relating to the ship Zong and insurance; attempt to prosecute those responsible for the deaths of the 132 slaves fails -          Committee on the Slave Trade established by Quaker Meeting for Sufferings -          Thomas Day publishes "The History of Sandford and Merton", children's novel with anti-slavery theme 1784       Tom Molineaux born in Virginia -          Samuel Johnson dies, leaving Francis Barber his residuary legatee -          James Ramsay publishes "Essay on the Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies" 1785       William Aldridge publishes "The Narrative of the Lord's Wonderful Dealings with John Marrant" (A Black) -          Thomas Clarkson's Latin essay on slavery wins Cambridge University prize 1786       Thomas Powell Buxton born 1787       Society (or Committee) for the Abolition of the Slave Trade established -          Quobna Ottobah Cugoano publishes "Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil . . . of Slavery" -          "Inkle and Yarico; An Opera", by George Colman the Younger, first produced -          Edward Rushton publishes "West-Indian Eclogues" -          William Roscoe publishes poem "The Wrongs of Africa" 1788       Peter Peckard publishes "Am I not a man and a brother?" -           Hannah More publishes "Slavery, a Poem" -          Ann Yearsley publishes "A Poem on the Inhumanity of the Slave-Trade" -          John Newton publishes "Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade" -          African Association founded 1789       James Stephen born -           James Ramsay dies -          Olaudah Equiano publishes first edition of "Interesting Narrative" -          William Blake publishes poem "The Little Black Boy' in "Songs of Innocence" -          French Revolution begins 1789-90 The Chevalier de Saint-Georges, black violinist, performs in London 1790       Anonymous novel "Memoirs and Opinions of Mr. Blenfield" published; possible first appearance of black British character in prose fiction 1791       John Marrant dies in London -          John Wesley dies -          Slave revolt in French Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue; leads to colony's independence as the new nation of Haiti in 1804 -          Establishment of colony for freed slaves in Sierra Leone 1793       Joseph Sturge born -          France declares war on Britain; British involvement in French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars (almost continuous until 1815) stimulates reactionary conservatism in domestic politics, which delays ending of the slave trade and colonial slavery 1795       William Daggers born in Jamaica -          Josiah Wedgwood dies 1796       J. G. Stedman publishes "Narrative, of a Five Years' Expedition, Against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam", including engravings by William Blake critical of slavery 1797       Olaudah Equiano dies -          Robert Southey publishes anti-slave trade poems 1798       Julius Soubise dies 1799       Joseph Emidy, African-born violinist, released in Falmouth after a period of forced service on a British ship; works in Cornwall as a performer and composer until his death 1801       Francis Barber dies 1803       Edward Despard executed for treason; his widow, Catherine, is supported by a pension from the radical MP Sir Francis Burdett -          Tom Molineaux, African-American boxer, migrates to Britain, where he continues his boxing career until 1815 1804       Independence of Haiti 1804?     Legh Richmond's "The Negro Servant" first published 1805       The boxer Bill Richmond's first major fights 1807       John Newton dies -          Britain abolishes its slave trade, with effect from 1 Jan. 1808 -          William Wordsworth writes poem "To Toussaint L'Ouverture'" 1809       Thomas Birch Freeman born -          Beilby Porteus dies 1810       Sarah Baartman brought to Britain -          Tom Molineaux's famous fight against All-England champion Tom Cribb 1811       Paul Cuffee, African-American sea captain, visits Britain -          George Bridgetower, the black violinist, receives a degree from Cambridge University 1813       Charles Middleton (Baron Barham) dies -          Granville Sharp dies 1814       Edward Rushton dies -          Jane Austen publishes "Mansfield Park" -          Legh Richmond's "Annals of the Poor" first published (includes "The Negro Servant') 1815       Napoleonic Wars end -          John Jea publishes "The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, the African Preacher", including descriptions of preaching tours in England and Ireland 1815/16 Sarah Baartman dies in Paris 1816       Philip Quaque dies at Cape Coast Castle -          Slave rebellion in Barbados 1817       Paul Cuffee dies 1818       Nathaniel Wells appointed Sheriff of Monmouthshire; first black person appointed to such a post 1819       William Daggers qualifies as solicitor in Liverpool 1820       William Davidson and others executed after failure of Cato Street Conspiracy 1821       Tom Molineaux dies -          Billy Waters appears as himself in Pierce Egan's "Life in London" at the Adelphi Theatre, London 1822       Billy Waters appears in "Life in London" at the Caledonian Theatre, Edinburgh 1823       Dadabhai Naoroji born in India -          Billy Waters dies in London -          Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery throughout the British Dominions (Anti-Slavery Society) established -          British government announces policies for 'amelioration' of the condition of slaves in the Caribbean colonies -          Slave rebellion in Demerara 1825       Thomas Powell Buxton becomes the leader in the House of Commons of the campaign against slavery -          Zachary Macaulay founds the "Anti-Slavery Reporter" 1826       Sarah Parker Remond born in the United States 1829       Bill Richmond dies 1831       William Roscoe dies -          Agency Committee of the Anti-Slavery Society formed -          "The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave" published -          'Narrative of Louis Asa-Asa, a Captured African' published 1831-2  Slave rebellion in Jamaica 1832       Great Reform Bill becomes law; reduces strength of West Indian interest in Parliament 1833       William Wilberforce dies -          Emancipation Act passed: all slaves in British colonies formally free from 1 August 1834, though most remain subject to the apprenticeship system -          Ira Aldridge becomes first black actor to play Othello on the British stage 1834       Emancipation in British colonies, 1 Aug. 1835       Joseph Emidy dies in Truro -                     James Africanus Horton born in Sierra Leone 1836       Cesar Picton dies 1837       Accession of Queen Victoria 1838       Zachary Macaulay dies -          Thomas Birch Freeman goes to the Gold Coast as a missionary -          First indentured immigrants brought to British Caribbean colonies from India -          End of apprenticeship system in British colonies, 1 Aug. 1839       British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (now Anti-Slavery International) established Thomas Powell Buxton publishes "The African Slave Trade and Its Remedy" 1840       Zilpha Elaw, African-American evangelist, travels to Britain; claims to have preached over 1,000 sermons in different parts of Britain over the next five years 1842       William Cuffay elected president of the London Chartists 1843       Samuel Lewis born in Sierra Leone -          Second World Anti-Slavery Convention held in London c.1843    Sarah Forbes Bonetta born in Dahomey 1845        Thomas Powell Buxton dies -          Frederick Douglass, African-American abolitionist, tours Britain and Ireland (until 1847) 1847-8   William Thackeray's novel "Vanity Fair" receives serial publication 1848       William Cuffay sentenced to transportation to Van Diemen's Land 1849       William Wells Brown, African-American abolitionist, arrives in Britain; addresses over 1,000 meetings over the next four years -          Thomas Carlyle publishes 'Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question' 1850        Henry 'Box' Brown, African-American abolitionist, escapes to Liverpool and lectures in Britain -          James Pennington, African-American abolitionist, publishes "The Fugitive Blacksmith" in Britain 1850-68 African-American escaped slaves and anti-slavery activists William and Ellen Craft settle in Britain 1851        John Gladstone dies -          Great Exhibition held in London's Hyde Park 1853-4   Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield, African-American singer, tours Britain 1853-5   Samuel Ringgold Ward, African-American abolitionist, tours Britain 1854       Britain becomes involved in the Crimean War 1855       Mary Seacole goes to provide comforts for British troops in the Crimean War -                     Samuel Ringgold Ward publishes "Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro" 1856       Crimean War ends 1857       Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole published 1857-8   Indian Mutiny 1858       Harriet Jacobs, African-American author, travels to Britain to seek a publisher 1859        James Africanus Horton graduates in medicine from the University of Edinburgh -          James Stephen dies -          Joseph Sturge dies -          Sarah Parker Remond, African-American abolitionist, arrives in Britain, where she lives until 1866, giving anti-slavery lectures and furthering her education 1860       Martin Delany, African-American abolitionist, visits Britain -          William Allen publishes "A Short Personal Narrative" in Dublin -                     William and Ellen Craft publish "Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom" 1861       Dajazmach Alamayahu born -          Harriet Jacobs publishes "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" -          American Civil War begins 1863       John Richard Archer born 1864       Samuel Ajayi Crowther consecrated as first African bishop of the Church of England 1865       Arthur Wharton born in the Gold Coast -          Charles Martin (Azaj Warqnah Ishete) born in Ethiopia -          Francis Galton first publishes his ideas on eugenics 1865       American Civil War ends -          Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica 1866       Amanda Ira Aldridge born -          Thomas Wiggins ('Blind Tom' Bethune), African-American pianist, tours Britain 1868       James Africanus Horton publishes "West African Countries and Peoples" 1869       Henry Sylvester Williams born in Trinidad -          John Jacob Thomas publishes "The Theory and Practice of Creole Grammar in Trinidad" 1870       William Cuffay dies 1871       Samuel Lewis called to the Bar after studying in London; returns to Sierra Leone -          Edward Jenkins publishes "The Coolie: His Rights and Wrongs" 1871-8 Fisk Jubilee Singers tour Britain and Europe 1873       John Jacob Thomas reads a paper on Trinidad Creole before the Philological Society in London 1875       Samuel Coleridge-Taylor born 1876       Solomon Plaatje born in South Africa 1877       Edward Jenkins publishes "Lutchmee and Dilloo: A Study of West Indian Life" 1879       Dajazmach Alamayahu dies 1880       Sarah Forbes Bonetta dies 1881       Mary Seacole dies in London -          Andrew Watson (Scotland) becomes first recorded black international footballer. 1883       James Africanus Horton dies -          Peter Thomas Stanford, African-American preacher, arrives in Britain, where he ministers until 1895 -          Bandele Omoniyi born in Lagos 1886       William Daggers dies -          Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in London -          Arthur Wharton sets first world record for 100 yards dash; signs for Preston North End becoming first black British footballer in the Football League 1887       Marcus Garvey born in Jamaica -          Colwyn Bay Institute (later the African Training Institute) established in Wales (closed 1911) -          British Guianan writer Leo (Egbert Martin) wins Empire-wide competition to add verses to 'God Save the Queen' 1888       Walter Tull born -          M. K. Gandhi arrives in London to train as a barrister; remains for three years -          J. A. Froude publishes "The English in the West Indies" -          Booker T. Washington founds Tuskegee Institute in the United States, 1889       Claude McKay born in Jamaica -          John Jacob Thomas dies in London -          "Froudacity: West India Fables by J. A. Froude, Explained by J. J.  Thomas" published in London 1890       William Miller born -          Thomas Birch Freeman dies 1891       Samuel Ajayi Crowther dies 1892       Dadabhai Naoroji elected MP for Finsbury, becoming first Asian member of the House of Commons -          Celestine Edwards becomes editor of "Lux" 1893       Nathaniel Fadipe born in Nigeria -          Newspaper "Fraternity" first published, with Celestine Edwards as editor; ceases publication 1896 1894       Celestine Edwards dies in Dominica -          Sarah Parker Remond dies in Italy 1895       Visit to Britain of three Bechuana chief's persuades government to prevent their territory from being absorbed into Rhodesia, thus securing eventual independent Botswana 1896       Samuel Lewis becomes first African to receive British Knighthood -          Oswald Mosley born 1896        Henry Sylvester Williams arrives in Britain -          "The Wandering Negro Minstrels" (director: Louis Lumière) shot in London; one of the earliest films to feature black actors 1897        Marian Anderson born in the United States -          Paul Dunbar, African-American poet's reading tour in Britain -          British Museum acquires large collection of works of art from Benin City 1898        Paul Robeson born in the United States -          Samuel Coleridge-Taylor premieres his most famous work, "Hiawatha's Wedding Feast" -           Bobby Dobbs, African-American boxer, makes first visit to Britain 1899        Booker T. Washington's first visit to Britain -          Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" serialized in "Blackwood's Magazine" 1900       Leslie Hutchinson born in Grenada -          Ronald Moody born in Jamaica -          First Pan-African Conference, London 1901        Queen Victoria dies -          Jack Leslie born -          Learie Constantine born in Trinidad -          C. L. R. James born in Trinidad -          Leslie Thompson born in Jamaica -          Adelaide Hall born in New York -          Royal African Society founded 1902        Malcolm Nurse (later known as George Padmore) born in Trinidad -          Ham Mukasa, Ugandan diplomat, visits Britain for Edward VII's coronation; publishes his journal in 1904 -          Bobby Dobbs returns to Britain and remains for eight years, competing in 42 prize fights 1903        Samuel Lewis dies in Sierra Leone -          Musical show "In Dahomey", with African-American cast, a success in London 1904       Edward Nelson called to the Bar 1905       Una Marson born in Jamaica -          Fela Sowande born in Nigeria -          Bandele Omoniyi arrives in Britain 1906       Henry Sylvester Williams elected to Marylebone Council 1906-8   The Kingston Choral Union tours Britain and Ireland as the Native Choir from Jamaica 1907        Only issue of "The Telephone" published -          Andrew Jeptha becomes the first black boxer to hold a British title 1908       Bandele Omoniyi publishes A Defence of the Ethiopian Movement 1908-9 Walter Tull plays for Clapton Football Club 1909       Peter Blackman born in Barbados -          Carmen Maingot (later Carmen England) born in Trinidad -          Augustus Merriman-Labor publishes "Britons Through Negro Spectacles" -          Walter Tull plays for Tottenham Hotspur 1910        Booker T. Washington's second visit to Britain -          Walter Tull transferred to Northampton Town Football Club, where he plays until the outbreak of the First World War 1911        Henry Sylvester Williams dies 1912        Esther Bruce born -          Enoch Powell born -          Samuel Coleridge-Taylor dies -          Booker T. Washington publishes "The Man Farthest Down" 1912-14    Marcus Garvey's first visit to Britain 1913        Oswald Denniston born in Jamaica -          David Pitt (later Lord Pitt of Hampstead) born in Grenada -          Bandele Omoniyi dies in Brazil -          John Richard Archer elected Mayor of Battersea, Britain's first black mayor -          Edward Nelson first elected to the local council, Hale, Cheshire -          African-American string band the Versatile Four starts residency at Murray's Club, London; beginnings of vogue for jazz in Britain 1914       Cecil Belfield Clarke arrives in London from Barbados -          Winifred Atwell born in Trinidad -          Ken 'Snakehips' Johnson born in British Guiana -          Dave Wilkins born in Barbados -          First World War starts; many black troops from Britain's African and Caribbean colonies involved 1914-17 Solomon Plaatje lives in London 1915       Claudia Jones born in Trinidad 1916       West African Student Christian Union founded -          Solomon Plaatje publishes "Native Life in South Africa"  1917      Dadabhai Naoroji dies -          Sir Harry Johnson publishes "The Black Man's Part in the War" -          Attacks on black people in Canning Town, London -          Walter Tull becomes a second lieutenant; first Black to receive an officer's commission in a British Army infantry regiment -          System of indentured immigration from India to British Caribbean colonies ends 1918       Walter Tull killed in action in France -          First World War ends 1919       John Carter born in British Guiana -          'Race' riots in several British cities direct violent attacks against black people -          Claude McKay arrives in Britain, where he lives and works until 1921 -          Southern Syncopated Orchestra first performs in London; tours Britain and Ireland until 1921 -          Marcus Garvey establishes Universal Negro Improvement Association in New York -          Gandhi begins campaign against British rule in India 1920       British government issues Aliens Order -          Roger Fry writes influential essay 'Negro Sculpture' 1920-1   Roland Hayes, African-American singer, performs in Britain 1921       Jack Leslie starts career at Plymouth Argyle Football Club (continues until 1934) 1922       Paul Robeson's first visit to Britain 1923       Sam Selvon born in Trinidad -          Ronald Moody migrates to Britain, where he develops his career as a sculptor -          Learie Constantine first tours England with West Indies cricket team 1924       Beryl Gilroy born in British Guiana -          Leslie Hutchinson, performer and cabaret artiste, settles in London 1924-5   British Empire Exhibition 1925       Malcolm Little (later Malcolm X) born in the United States -          British government issues Special Restriction (Coloured Seamen) Order -          William Miller first elected to Plymouth City Council -          West African Students' Union founded -          Marian Anderson moves to London at the beginning of a ten-year period establishing her musical career in Europe -          International African Institute founded 1926       Aubrey Williams born in British Guiana 1927       'Shake' Keane born in St Vincent -          John La Rose born in Trinidad 1928       Kath Locke born -          Andrew Salkey born in Panama 1929       Leslie Thompson migrates to Britain, where he pursues a career as a jazz musician until 1954 -          British Boxing Board of Control established; restricts championships 'to boxers of white parents' 1930       Arthur Wharton dies -           'Arab riot' in South Shields 1930       Paul Robeson first plays Othello in a British production -          Coronation of Haile Selassie as Emperor of Ethiopia 1931       Coloured Seamen's Union formed in Cardiff -          League of Coloured Peoples founded -          Negro Welfare Association founded (active until the Second World War) -          Adelaide Hall, African-American vocalist, makes first visit to Britain -          African Churches Mission founded in Liverpool (closed 1949) -          Carmen Maingot (later Carmen England) first comes to Britain to pursue her musical career 1932       Anna Rutherford born in Australia -          C. L. R. James moves to Britain -          Una Marson first moves to Britain -          John Richard Archer dies -          Oswald Mosley forms the British Union of Fascists 1933       Michael de Freitas (later Michael X) born in Trinidad 1934       Nancy Cunard publishes influential anthology NEGRO 1935       Vincent Albert Reid born in Jamaica -          Marcus Garvey moves to Britain and runs Universal Negro Improvement Association from London -          Amy Ashwood Garvey manages a restaurant in London (until 1938) which becomes a meeting place for Pan-Africanists -          Italian invasion of Ethiopia 1936       Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia, living in exile in Bath (until 1941); Una Marson works for a short period as his secretary -          C. L. R. James's play "Black Majesty" staged in London, with Paul Robeson as Toussaint L'Ouverture -          "New Times and Ethiopian News" founded; continues publication until 1956 1937       Ken 'Snakehips' Johnson forms band which becomes known as the West Indian Dance Orchestra -          International African Service Bureau established (later merged with Pan-African Federation) 1938       C. L. R. James publishes "The Black Jacobins" -          "International African Opinion" first published (closed following the outbreak of the Second World War) -          Adelaide Hall, African-American vocalist, settles in London; becomes first black star to secure long-term contract with the BBC 1939       Second World War starts; many African and Caribbean people arrive in Britain to help with the war effort; later arrivals of US armed forces include many black troops 1940       Marcus Garvey dies in London -          Edward Nelson dies 1941       Musicians Ken 'Snakehips' Johnson and Dave Williams killed by bombing of Cafe de Paris during air raid -          British government begins recruiting service personnel and skilled workers from the Caribbean to help war effort -          Una Marson appointed programme assistant for BBC's "Calling the West Indies" (until 1945, when she returns to Jamaica) 1942       United States troops (including many African-Americans) begin to arrive in Britain; attempts to maintain segregationist policies by both US military authorities and British officials cause conflict -          Rudolph Dunbar appears as first black conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra 1943       Learie Constantine and his family refused accommodation at the Imperial Hotel, London, on racist grounds -          Peter Milliard founds Negro Association (Manchester) -          Riots between black and white American servicemen in Bristol -          BBC's Caribbean Voices programme starts (broadcast until 1958) 1944        Amryl Johnson born in Trinidad -          Bernie Grant born in British Guiana -          Nathaniel Fadipe dies -          Pan-African Federation formed -          Eric Williams publishes "Capitalism and Slavery" -          MacDonald Bailey arrives in Britain to serve in the Royal Air Force, and soon makes his mark as a champion athlete 1945        Second World War ends -          Pan-African Congress (Manchester); Amy Ashwood Garvey delivers paper on woman's rights 1946        Winifred Atwell arrives in London to study at the Royal Academy of Music -          Salim Charles Wilson dies -          West Indian Students' Union formed -          First performance by black dance group Les Ballets Nègres (operates until 1953) -          Ronald Moody's first one-man show in London 1947        David Pitt settles in London -          Independence of India and Pakistan marks beginning of dismantling of Britain's colonial empire 1948        Claude McKay dies in Chicago -          British Nationality Act -          Empire Windrush arrives at Tilbury docks, Kent (youngest West Indian passenger is Vincent Albert Reid) -          Ban on black title challengers in British boxing ends; Dick Turpin successfully challenges for the British middleweight title -          Gandhi assassinated in India 1950       Sam Selvon migrates to Britain, where he lives until 1978 -                     Winifred Atwell signs recording contract with Decca 1951       Randolph Turpin becomes first black British boxer to win a world title, beating Sugar Ray Robinson 1952       Olive Morris born -          Andrew Salkey migrates to Britain, where he lives until 1976 -          Dambudzo Marechera born in Southern Rhodesia -          Charles Martin (Azaj Warqnah Ishete) dies in Ethiopia -          Africa Social and Technical Society established (Liverpool) -          Sam Selvon publishes his first novel, "A Brighter Sun" -          'Shake' Keane migrates to Britain, where he lives for the next twenty years and becomes famous as a jazz musician -          Visit by African-American singer Mahalia Jackson introduces gospel music inside British churches -          MacDonald Bailey wins a bronze medal for Britain in the 100 metres at the Olympic Games in Helsinki -          Games in Helsinki -          Aubrey Williams settles in London and develops his career as an artist 1954        Billy Boston becomes first black rugby player to represent the British lions on tour of Australia 1955       Montgomery bus boycott in the United States 1956       Laurie Cunningham born -                     Amanda Ira Aldridge dies -          London Transport starts actively recruiting in Barbados -          Sam Selvon publishes "The Lonely Londoners" -          George Padmore publishes "Pan Africanism or Communism?" -          Pearl and Edric Connor found first theatrical agency to represent black actors, writers and film-makers in Britain 1957        Michael de Freitas (later Michael X) migrates to Britain, where he lives until 1971 -          Gold Coast becomes independent, taking the name Ghana; first African colony to become independent from Britain 1958       Institute of Race Relations established -          Riots in Nottingham and Netting Hill -          Errol John's play "Moon on a Rainbow Shawl" produced at the Royal Court Theatre, London; first major British production of a play by a black writer -           Kelso Cochran murdered 1959        George Padmore dies in London -          Launch of campaign in Britain for boycott of South African goods; later becomes Anti-Apartheid Movement -          Beginnings of Notting Hill Carnival as indoor event at St Pancras Town Hall; becomes street festival in 1960's -          Andrew Salkey publishes his first novel, "A Quality of Violence" -          Paul Robeson once again plays Othello in a British production 1960       Sharpeville massacre in South Africa 1961       John La Rose migrates to Britain -          David Pitt elected to London County Council -          Hayter Report leads to establishment of centres of African Studies in British universities 1962        Learie Constantine knighted -          Commonwealth Immigrants Act -          Visit of Broadway show "Black Nativity" is first major exposure of British audiences to gospel music -          Jamaica and (later) Trinidad and Tobago become the first of Britain's Caribbean colonies to gain independence 1963        Bristol bus boycott -          "Ten Bob in Winter" (director: Lloyd Reckord); first British film with entirely black cast -          Arrest of Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders in South Africa -          Civil rights march on Washington in the United States 1964        Claudia Jones dies in London -          Martin Luther King visits Britain -          Ska emerges on the British music scene -          Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies established at the University of Birmingham (closed 2002) 1965        Una Marson dies in Jamaica -          Race Relations Act -          Malcolm X makes significant visit to Britain, shortly before his assassination in New York -          Campaign Against Racial Discrimination (CARD) established -          Government of Ian Smith issues Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Southern Rhodesia 1966        Randolph Turpin dies -          London Transport extends recruitment scheme to Jamaica and Trinidad -          Caribbean Artists' Movement established (continues until 1972) -          New Beacon Books established -          Black Panther Party formed in the United States 1968        Leslie Hutchinson dies -          Edric Connor dies -          Commonwealth Immigrants Act -          Race Relations Act -          Enoch Powell's 'Rivers of Blood' speech at Walsall 1968-96 Anna Rutherford directs the Commonwealth Literature Centre at the University of Aarhus 1969        David Oluwale becomes the first black person to die in police custody -          Amy Ashwood Garvey dies in Jamaica -          Learie Constantine becomes the first black member of the House of Lords -          Police assault on Olive Morris starts her career as an activist -          Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications established -          Newsletter of the Institute of Race Relations renamed "Race Today" 1970       Cecil Belfield Clarke dies -          William Miller dies -          Hansib Publications established 1971       Immigration Act -          Bernard Coard publishes "How the West Indian Child Is Made Educationally Sub-Normal in the British School System" 1972       Walter Rodney publishes "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa" -          Ethiopian World Federation established in London -          Clive Sullivan becomes first black captain of a British national team in any sport: leads rugby league team to a World Cup win 1973       Kath Locke establishes George Jackson House for homeless children (Manchester) -          Trevor McDonald begins working for ITN (knighted 1999; retires 2005) 1974       Dambudzo Marechera granted political asylum in Britain; remains until his return to Zimbabwe in 1982 -          David Pitt becomes first black chairman of the Greater London Council -          Darcus Howe becomes editor of "Race Today" -          First British dub album appears (Keith Hudson, "Pick a Dub") -          Twelve Tribes of Israel headquarters established in London 1975       Michael X (Michael de Freitas) hanged in Trinidad -          David Pitt created a life peer as Baron Pitt of Hampstead -          Centreprise Publications established -          "Pressure" (director: Horace Ovè); first feature-length black British film 1976       Paul Robeson dies in the United States -          Commission for Racial Equality established -          Society for Caribbean Studies established -          The Fosters, first British television comedy series with all-black cast (ITV; runs until 1978) -          Beryl Gilroy publishes "Black Teacher" -          Soweto rising in South Africa 1977       Commonword established -          Kokuma Dance Company founded (Birmingham; functions until 2004) -          Laurie Cunningham becomes first black footballer to play for England in the under-21 team 1978       Organization of Women of African and Asian Descent formed (continues until 1983) -          Empire Road, first black British television soap (BBC; runs until 1979) -          Edward Said, Arab-American scholar, publishes "Orientalism" -          Viv Anderson becomes first black player to represent England at football 1979       Blair Peach killed during anti-fascist demonstration in Southall -          Olive Morris dies -          Dambudzo Marechera's The "House of Hunger" wins the "Guardian" Fiction Prize 1980       Oswald Mosley dies -          Riots in St Paul's district of Bristol -          Handsworth Cultural Centre founded -          Daley Thompson wins a gold medal in the decathlon at the Moscow Olympics. 1981       Scarman Report -          Brixton and Toxteth riots -          New Cross fire -          Barbados-born Roland Butcher becomes first black cricketer to play for England 1982       International Book Fair of Radical Black and Third World books founded (continues until 1995) -          London Community Gospel Choir founded 1983       Winifred Atwell dies -          Akira Press founded 1984       Visit of South African Prime Minister P. W. Botha to Britain leads to massive demonstrations in London organized by the Anti-Apartheid Movement -           Centre for Caribbean Studies established  at the University of Warwick -          "News for Babylon" (major Anthony of Caribbean and black British poetry) published -          DJ Newtrament and Krew bring out 'London Bridge Is Falling Down', widely regarded as first authentically British hip hop tune -          Los Angeles Olympics: Daley Thompson wins gold medal in the decathlon for the second time; Tessa Sanderson wins gold in the javelin event, to become first black British woman to win Olympic gold 1985       Lord Pitt of Hampstead elected president of the British Medical Association -          Karia Press founded; Karnak House founded -          Amryl Johnson publishes "Long Road to Nowhere" -          Community and Village Entertainment Arts Centre founded (Birmingham) -          Wilfred Wood becomes Bishop of Croydon, the first black Anglican bishop in England (retires 2002) 1986       "Handsworth Songs" (director: John Akomfrah), documentary by Black Audio Film Collective -          Black Dance Development Trust founded (Birmingham) -          Beryl Gilroy publishes her first novel, "Frangipani House" 1987       Leslie Thompson dies -          Dambudzo Marechera dies in Zimbabwe -          Fela Sowande dies -          General election sees Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng, Bernie Grant, and Keith Vaz elected as Labour MPs -          BLACK HISTORY MONTH FIRST OBSERVED IN BRITAIN 1988       Jack Leslie dies -          Centre for Caribbean Studies established at London Metropolitan University -          "Race Today" ceases publication -          David Lawrence becomes first British-born black cricketer to play for England 1989       C. L. R. James dies in London -          Laurie Cunningham dies -          'Art from South Africa' exhibition, Museum of Modern Art, Oxford -          "Desmond's", sitcom (Channel 4; runs until 1995) 1990       Aubrey Williams dies -          Dave Wilkins dies -          Nelson Mandela released from prison in South Africa 1991       Carmen England dies -          Mustapha Matura's "The Coup" is first play by a black dramatist to be commissioned by Britain's National Theatre -          Ben Okri wins the Booker Prize for "The Famished Road" -          Isaac Julien's first feature film, "Young Soul Rebels" -          Stephen Bourne and Esther Bruce publish "Aunt Esther's Story" 1992       X Press founded -          Amryl Johnson publishes "Gorgons" -          Kath Locke dies 1993       Stephen Lawrence murdered -          Peter Blackman dies -          Adelaide Hall dies -          Marian Anderson dies in the United States 1994       Esther Bruce dies -          Lord Pitt of Hampstead (David Pitt) dies -          Sam Selvon dies -          Official end of apartheid in South Africa; Nelson Mandela becomes the country's first democratically elected president 1995       Andrew Salkey dies -          'Africa: The Art of a Continent' exhibition in London -          africa95 arts festival in London 1998       Enoch Powell dies -          Commemoration of 50th anniversary of the arrival of the "Empire Windrush" -          Chris Ofili wins Turner Prize   1999       MacPherson Report -          Steve McQueen wins the Turner Prize 2000       Oswald Denniston dies -          Bernie Grant dies -          Institute of Commonwealth Studies launches Caribbean Studies, Black and Asian History project (CASBAH) -          Damilola Taylor murdered 2001       Amryl Johnson dies -       Vincent Albert Reid dies -          Anna Rutherford dies -          British Museum opens new Africa gallery -          Major terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September 2002       Paul Boateng appointed Chief Secretary to the Treasury, becoming first black Cabinet minister -          Inauguration of Memorial Gates, Constitution Hill, London -          France returns remains of Sarah Baartman to South Africa, where she is given an official funeral 2003    Baroness Amos becomes first black woman to be a Cabinet minister 2004       'Black Style' show, Victoria and Albert Museum, London -          Jason Robinson becomes first black captain of the England rugby union team 2005       John Carter dies -          Pearl Connor dies -          Adam Afriyie becomes first black Conservative MP in the general election -          Suicide bombings in London on 7 July -          Report of the Commission for Africa, chaired by Tony Blair -          "Captured Africans" (memorial to victims of the slave trade) erected in Lancaster -          Frank Bowling becomes first black British artist elected to the Royal Academy -          'Africa Remix' show, Hayward Gallery, London -          Independent Black Publishers Association established -          John Sentamu becomes first black Archbishop of York 2006       John La Rose dies 2007       Bicentenary of the 1807 Abolition of the Slave Trade Act.